Object-based programming

All the values we have worked with in Python have been objects, but we haven't really been aware of that because we've been able to work with them using built-in operators. For example we have been able to write x = a + 10 and it has looked enough like regular arithmetic that we haven't had to address the fact that those things, x and a, are objects.

Aside 1: Already though we have seen that the meaning of the operator depends on the types of the objects to which it is applied. The + in 3 + 2 means arithmetic addition, but the + in "Tim" + "Topper" means string concatenation. Similarly the % in 9%5 means modulo, but the second % in "%1.2f" % temp means string interpolation. (Jargon alert: In object-oriented programming this is referred to as polymorphism or more specifically operator overloading).

Aside 2: Remember that you can query the type of a literal value, or of the value associated with a name, by using the built-in function type, e.g.

>>> type(4)
<class 'int'>
>>> type("Tim")
<class 'str'>
>>> x = 4.5
>>> type(x)
<class 'float'>
>>> last_name = "Topper"
>>> type(last_name)
<class 'str'>
>>>

where int is short for integer, float is short for floating point and str is short for string.

However, most object types provide more operations than there are built-in operators. In these cases we use a different notation to specify the operation to be performed. But to describe that notation it will help to have a little more jargon.

An object consists of a set of attributes and a set of methods it knows how to apply to itself. For example we can see that the string last_name above has as its attribute the sequence of characters T o p p e r, but what about its methods? One way to find an object's methods is to use the dir() command, e.g.

>>> dir(last_name)
['__add__', '__class__', '__contains__', '__delattr__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__getitem__', 
'__getnewargs__', '__getslice__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__', '__le__', '__len__', '__lt__', '__mod__', '__mul__', 
'__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__rmod__', '__rmul__', '__setattr__', '__str__', 'capitalize',
 'center', 'count', 'decode', 'encode', 'endswith', 'expandtabs', 'find', 'index', 'isalnum', 'isalpha', 'isdigit', 'islower',
 'isspace', 'istitle', 'isupper', 'join', 'ljust', 'lower', 'lstrip', 'replace', 'rfind', 'rindex', 'rjust', 'rsplit', 'rstrip',
 'split', 'splitlines', 'startswith', 'strip', 'swapcase', 'title', 'translate', 'upper', 'zfill']
>>>

The names beginning with double underscores __ correspond to the methods invoked by operators, e.g. the __add__ method is invoked when + appears between two string values. The names after the double underscore names are invoked by giving the name of the object followed by a period and then the name of the method followed by parentheses, e.g.

>>> last_name.upper()
'TOPPER'
>>> last_name.center(20)
'       Topper       '
>>>

Note that when the method requires parameters they are listed in the parentheses, like 20 in the second command above.

In Python everything is an object. For instance we have seen this dot notation before, when importing the modules random and math. That's because an imported module is an object and we access the methods the module provides using this same dot notation. The dot notation for accessing object attributes and methods is common to most object-oriented languages including C++, Java, and Javascript.

The general syntax to invoke one of an object's methods is,

object_name.method_name(parameters) where the parameters depend on the method, and may be optional as in last_name.upper() above, or provided as in last_name.center(20).

Object-based programming

Jargon summary